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Gelir Eşitsizliği ve İnsani Gelişme İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 1, 45 - 73, 30.06.2023

Öz

Gelir dağılımındaki eşitsizlik konusu iktisatçılar başta olmak üzere sosyal bilimlerdeki birçok araştırmacının ilgisini çekmektedir. Teknolojik devrimle daha derin bir sorun haline gelen gelir eşitsizliğinin boyutu, neden ve sonuçları birçok ampirik çalışmaya konu olmuştur. Literatürdeki çalışmalar gelir eşitsizliğini genellikle gelir düzeyi ile ilişkilendirmektedir. Bu yüzden de insan faktörü çoğunlukla analiz dışı tutulmaktadır. Bu çalışmada gelir dağılımı eşitsizliğinin UNDP tarafından hesaplanan ve refahın sadece ekonomik değil -sağlık ve eğitim göstergeleriyle- insani boyutunu da içine alan insani gelişme endeksi ile ilişkisi Türkiye özelinde incelenmiştir. 1990-2019 dönemini kapsayan zaman serisi analizinde ARDL sınır testi ve nedensellik testleri kullanılmıştır. Analizlerde genel ve ayrıştırılmış olmak üzere iki model kullanılmıştır. İlk modelde gelir eşitsizliğinin insani gelişme endeksiyle ilişkisi, ikinci modelde ise gelir eşitsizliğinin insani gelişme endeksinin sağlık, eğitim ve gelir alt endeksleriyle ilişkisi araştırılmıştır. Analiz sonuçları her iki modelde de seriler arasında uzun dönemli bir ilişkinin olduğunu göstermiştir. İnsani gelişme endeksi ve sağlık endeksinin işareti negatif ve anlamlı, eğitim endeksinin pozitif ve anlamlı, gelir endeksinin ise negatif fakat anlamsız olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Nedensellik testleri sonuçlarına göre ise genel olarak insani gelişme endeksinden gelir eşitsizliğine doğru tek yönlü nedensellik tespit edilmiştir. Bu sonuçlar Türkiye için insani gelişme seviyesindeki artışların gelir dağılımını daha adaletli hale getireceğini göstermektedir. Gelir dağılımında eşitsizliği azaltmak isteyen Türkiye için bu sonuç, eğitim ve sağlık yatırımlarını arttırma yönünde fikir vermektedir. Ayrıca eğitim kalitesinin yükseltilmesi, sağlık ve eğitimdeki derin eşitsizliklerin azaltılması ve eğitimde fırsat eşitliğinin sağlanması gerekmektedir.

Kaynakça

  • Ahluwalia, M. S. (1976). Inequality, Poverty and Development. Journal of Development Economics, 3(4), 307-342.
  • Akinbobola, T. O. & Saibu, M. O. O. (2004). Income Inequality, Unemployment, and Poverty in Nigeria: A Vector Autoregressive Approach, The Journal of Policy Reform, 7(3), 175-183.
  • Arimah, B. (2004). Poverty Reduction and Human Development in Africa. Journal of Human Development, 5(3), 399-415.
  • Arshed, N., Anwar, A., Hassan, M. S. & Bukhari, S. (2019). Education Stock and Its Implication for Income Inequality: The Case of Asian Economies. Review of Development Economics, 23(2), 1050-1066.
  • Artige, L. & Cavenaile, L. (2023). Public Education Expenditures, Growth and Income Inequality. Journal of Economic Theory, 105622.
  • Asandaş, N. & Işik N. (2021). Ekonomik Kalkınma ve Gelir Dağılımının Yoksulluk Üzerindeki Etkisi: Ekonometrik Bir Analiz. Aksaray Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 13(3), 101-116.
  • Avcı, B. S. (2022). Türkiye’de Kamu Eğitim ve Sağlık Harcamaları ile Gelir Eşitsizliğinin İnsani Kalkınma Üzerine Etkisi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 18(4), 1069-1088.
  • Balcilar, M., Gupta, R., Ma, W. & Makena, P. (2019). Income Inequality and Economic Growth: A Re-examination of Theory and Evidence. Working Paper. (No. 201844). University of Pretoria.
  • Becker, G. & Chiswick, B. (1966). Education and the Distribution of Earnings. The American Economic Review, 56(1/2), 358-369.
  • Bourguignon, F. & Morrisson, C. (1990). Income Distribution, Development and Foreign Trade. European Economic Review, 34(6), 1113–1132.
  • Bucak, Ç. & Saygılı, F. (2022). Ticari Açıklık, Gelir Eşitsizliği ve İnsani Gelişme İlişkisi: Panel Veri Analizi. Ege Stratejik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 13(2), 23-41.
  • Castelló-Climent, A. & Doménech, R. (2021). Human Capital and Income Inequality Revisited. Education Economics, 29(2), 194-212.
  • Checchi, D. (2003). Inequality in Incomes and Access to Education: A Cross‐country Analysis (1960–95). Labour, 17(2), 153-201.
  • Clarkwest, A. (2008). Neo-materialist Theory and the Temporal Relationship Between Income Inequality and Longevity Change. Social Science & Medicine, 66(9), 1871-1881.
  • Coady, D. & Dizioli, A. (2018). Income Inequality and Education Revisited: Persistence, Endogeneity and Heterogeneity. Applied Economics, 50(25), 2747-2761.
  • Dewan, P., Rørth, R., Jhund, P. S., Ferreira, J. P., Zannad, F., Shen, L., ... & Packer, M. (2019). Income Inequality and Outcomes in Heart Failure: A Global Between-Country Analysis. JACC: Heart Failure, 7(4), 336-346.
  • Dickey, D. A. & Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Journal of American Statistical Association, 74, 427-431.
  • Dickey, D. A. & Fuller, W. A. (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Econometrica, 49, 1057-1072.
  • Dişbudak, C. & Süslü, B. (2009). Kalkınma ve Bireysel Gelir Dağılımı: Kuznets Hipotezi Türkiye İçin Geçerli Mi? Akdeniz Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(18), 146-166.
  • Erkişi, K. & Ceyhan, T. (2020). İktisadi Büyüme ve Gelir Dağılımı Adaleti İlişkisi: Bir Panel Veri Analizi. Sosyoekonomi, 28(43), 195-212.
  • Fan, Z., Zhang, R. & Liu, X. (2016). Income Inequality, Entrepreneur Formation, and the Economic Development: Evidence from China. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 21(3), 444-464.
  • Fawaz, F. & Rahnama, M. (2022). The Relationship Between Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Economies in Transition. Problems of Economic Transition, 63(7-9), 379-400.
  • Földvári, P., van Leeuwen, B. & van Leeuwen-Li, J. (2010). Educational Inequality in Europe, 1870-2000. In Workshop on Human Capital in Economic History: Measurement, Determinants and Implications, Tuebingen, Germany, 27-29.
  • Granger, C. W. J. (1988). Some Recent Development in a Concept of Causality. Journal of Econometrics, 39(1-2), 199-211.
  • Güzel, A. E. & Erdoğan, S. (2019). Demokrasi, Gelir Eşitsizliği ve İnsani Gelişme İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği. In Congress Book Series Seventh International Mediterranean Social Sciences Congress (MECAS VII), 233.
  • Hill, T. D. & Jorgenson, A. (2018). Bring out Your Dead!: A Study of Income Inequality and Life Expectancy in the United States, 2000–2010. Health & Place, 49, 1-6.
  • Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic Growth and Income Inequality. The American Economic Review, 45(1), 1-28.
  • Lin, C. H. A. (2007). Education Expansion, Educational Inequality, and Income Inequality: Evidence from Taiwan, 1976–2003. Social Indicators Research, 80(3), 601-615.
  • Linden, M. & Ray, D. (2017). Aggregation Bias-correcting Approach to the Health–Income Relationship: Life Expectancy and GDP Per Capita in 148 Countries, 1970–2010. Economic Modelling, 61, 126-136.
  • Macinko, J. A., Shi, L. & Starfield, B. (2004). Wage Inequality, the Health System, and Infant Mortality in Wealthy Industrialized Countries, 1970–1996. Social Science & Medicine, 58(2), 279-292.
  • MacKinnon, J G., Haug, A. A. & Michelis. (1999). Numerical Distribution Functions of Likelihood Ratio Tests for Cointegration. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 14, 563-577.
  • Marques, A. M. (2022). Is Income Inequality Good or Bad for Growth? Further Empirical Evidence Using Data for All Brazilian Cities. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 62, 360-376.
  • Mbaku, J. M. (1997). Inequality in Income Distribution and Economic Development: Evidence Using Alternative Measures of Development. Journal of Economic Development, 22(2), 57-67.
  • Mincer, J. (1958). Investment in Human Capital and Personal Income Distribution. Journal of Political Economy, 66(4), 281-302.
  • Moyo, C., Mishi, S. & Ncwadi, R. (2022). Human Capital Development, Poverty and Income Inequality in the Eastern Cape province. Development Studies Research, 9(1), 36-47.
  • Narayan, P. K. (2005). The Saving and Investment Nexus for China: Evidence from Cointegration Tests. Applied Economics, 37(17) 1979-1990.
  • Nettle, D. & Dickins, T. E. (2022). Why is Greater Income Inequality Associated with Lower Life Satisfaction and Poorer Health? Evidence from the European Quality of Life Survey, 2012. The Social Science Journal, 1-12.
  • Ngoc, B. H. & Hai, L. M. (2022). Time-frequency nexus Between Tourism Development, Economic Growth, Human Capital, and Income Inequality in Singapore. Applied Economics Letters, 1-6.
  • Nielsen, F. & Alderson, A. (1997). The Kuznets Curve and the Great U-Turn: Income Inequality in U.S. Counties, 1970 to 1990. American Sociological Review, 62(1), 12-33.
  • Oczki, J., Muszyńska, J. & Wędrowska, E. (2017). Kuznets Hypothesis of Income Inequality: Empirical Evidence from EU. Hradec Economic Days, 7(1), 643-651. http://repozytorium.umk.pl/handle/item/4909
  • Özden, E., Gültekin, Ö. F. & Bayramoğlu, T. (2022). Panel Veri ve Makine Öğrenmesi Yöntemiyle Gelir Dağılımı ve İnsani Gelişmişlik Arasındaki İlişki Üzerine Bir Analiz. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 21(2), 564-582.
  • Öztürk, E. & Oktar, S. (2017). Kalkınma Gelir Eşitsizliği İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği. Akademik Hassasiyetler, 4(8), 101-123.
  • Park, K. H. (2017). Education, Globalization, and Income Inequality in Asia, ADBI Working Paper, No. 732, Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), Tokyo. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/163231
  • Pampel, F. & Pillai, V. (1986). Patterns and Determinants of Infant Mortality in Developed Nations, 1950-1975. Demography, 23(4), 525-542.
  • Paukert, F. (1973). Income Distribution at Different Levels of Development: Survey of Evidence. International Labour Review, 108(3), 97-126.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289-326.
  • Phillips, P. C. B. & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a Unit Root in Time Series Regression, Biometrika, 75(2), 335 346.
  • Rambotti, S. (2015). Recalibrating the Spirit level: An Analysis of the Interaction of Income Inequality and Poverty and Its Effect on Health. Social Science & Medicine, 139, 123-131.
  • Rodgers, G. B. (1979). Income and Inequality as Determinants of Mortality: An International Cross-section Analysis. Population Studies, 33(2), 343-351.
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The Relationship Between Income Inequality and Human Development: Evidence from Türkiye

Yıl 2023, Cilt: 25 Sayı: 1, 45 - 73, 30.06.2023

Öz

The issue of inequality in income distribution attracts the attention of many researchers in social sciences, especially economists. The size, causes and consequences of income inequality, which has become a deeper problem with the technological revolution, have been the subject of many empirical studies. Studies in the literature generally associate income inequality with income level. Therefore, the human factor is mostly excluded from the analysis. In this study, the relationship between income inequality (gini) and the human development index calculated by UNDP, which includes not only the economic but also the human dimension of welfare (with health and education indicators), has been examined in Turkey. In the time series analysis covering the period 1990-2019, ARDL bounds test and causality tests were used. There are two models in the analysis, general and disaggregated. In the first model, the relationship of income inequality with the human development index, and in the second model, the relationship of income inequality with health, education and income sub-indices in the human development index was investigated. The results of the analysis showed that there is a long-run relationship between the series in both models. It has been determined that the sign of the human development index and health index is negative and significant, the education index is positive and significant, and the income index is negative but insignificant. According to the results of the causality tests, in general, one-way causality from the human development index to income inequality has been determined. These results show that increases in the level of human development will make the income distribution more equitable in Turkey. For Turkey, which wants to reduce inequality in income distribution, this result gives an idea to increase investments in education and health. In addition, it is necessary to increase thce quality of education, reduce the deep inequalities in health and education, and ensure equality of opportunity in education.

Kaynakça

  • Ahluwalia, M. S. (1976). Inequality, Poverty and Development. Journal of Development Economics, 3(4), 307-342.
  • Akinbobola, T. O. & Saibu, M. O. O. (2004). Income Inequality, Unemployment, and Poverty in Nigeria: A Vector Autoregressive Approach, The Journal of Policy Reform, 7(3), 175-183.
  • Arimah, B. (2004). Poverty Reduction and Human Development in Africa. Journal of Human Development, 5(3), 399-415.
  • Arshed, N., Anwar, A., Hassan, M. S. & Bukhari, S. (2019). Education Stock and Its Implication for Income Inequality: The Case of Asian Economies. Review of Development Economics, 23(2), 1050-1066.
  • Artige, L. & Cavenaile, L. (2023). Public Education Expenditures, Growth and Income Inequality. Journal of Economic Theory, 105622.
  • Asandaş, N. & Işik N. (2021). Ekonomik Kalkınma ve Gelir Dağılımının Yoksulluk Üzerindeki Etkisi: Ekonometrik Bir Analiz. Aksaray Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 13(3), 101-116.
  • Avcı, B. S. (2022). Türkiye’de Kamu Eğitim ve Sağlık Harcamaları ile Gelir Eşitsizliğinin İnsani Kalkınma Üzerine Etkisi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 18(4), 1069-1088.
  • Balcilar, M., Gupta, R., Ma, W. & Makena, P. (2019). Income Inequality and Economic Growth: A Re-examination of Theory and Evidence. Working Paper. (No. 201844). University of Pretoria.
  • Becker, G. & Chiswick, B. (1966). Education and the Distribution of Earnings. The American Economic Review, 56(1/2), 358-369.
  • Bourguignon, F. & Morrisson, C. (1990). Income Distribution, Development and Foreign Trade. European Economic Review, 34(6), 1113–1132.
  • Bucak, Ç. & Saygılı, F. (2022). Ticari Açıklık, Gelir Eşitsizliği ve İnsani Gelişme İlişkisi: Panel Veri Analizi. Ege Stratejik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 13(2), 23-41.
  • Castelló-Climent, A. & Doménech, R. (2021). Human Capital and Income Inequality Revisited. Education Economics, 29(2), 194-212.
  • Checchi, D. (2003). Inequality in Incomes and Access to Education: A Cross‐country Analysis (1960–95). Labour, 17(2), 153-201.
  • Clarkwest, A. (2008). Neo-materialist Theory and the Temporal Relationship Between Income Inequality and Longevity Change. Social Science & Medicine, 66(9), 1871-1881.
  • Coady, D. & Dizioli, A. (2018). Income Inequality and Education Revisited: Persistence, Endogeneity and Heterogeneity. Applied Economics, 50(25), 2747-2761.
  • Dewan, P., Rørth, R., Jhund, P. S., Ferreira, J. P., Zannad, F., Shen, L., ... & Packer, M. (2019). Income Inequality and Outcomes in Heart Failure: A Global Between-Country Analysis. JACC: Heart Failure, 7(4), 336-346.
  • Dickey, D. A. & Fuller, W. A. (1979). Distribution of the Estimators for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Journal of American Statistical Association, 74, 427-431.
  • Dickey, D. A. & Fuller, W. A. (1981). Likelihood Ratio Statistics for Autoregressive Time Series with a Unit Root. Econometrica, 49, 1057-1072.
  • Dişbudak, C. & Süslü, B. (2009). Kalkınma ve Bireysel Gelir Dağılımı: Kuznets Hipotezi Türkiye İçin Geçerli Mi? Akdeniz Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(18), 146-166.
  • Erkişi, K. & Ceyhan, T. (2020). İktisadi Büyüme ve Gelir Dağılımı Adaleti İlişkisi: Bir Panel Veri Analizi. Sosyoekonomi, 28(43), 195-212.
  • Fan, Z., Zhang, R. & Liu, X. (2016). Income Inequality, Entrepreneur Formation, and the Economic Development: Evidence from China. Journal of the Asia Pacific Economy, 21(3), 444-464.
  • Fawaz, F. & Rahnama, M. (2022). The Relationship Between Economic Growth and Income Inequality in Economies in Transition. Problems of Economic Transition, 63(7-9), 379-400.
  • Földvári, P., van Leeuwen, B. & van Leeuwen-Li, J. (2010). Educational Inequality in Europe, 1870-2000. In Workshop on Human Capital in Economic History: Measurement, Determinants and Implications, Tuebingen, Germany, 27-29.
  • Granger, C. W. J. (1988). Some Recent Development in a Concept of Causality. Journal of Econometrics, 39(1-2), 199-211.
  • Güzel, A. E. & Erdoğan, S. (2019). Demokrasi, Gelir Eşitsizliği ve İnsani Gelişme İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği. In Congress Book Series Seventh International Mediterranean Social Sciences Congress (MECAS VII), 233.
  • Hill, T. D. & Jorgenson, A. (2018). Bring out Your Dead!: A Study of Income Inequality and Life Expectancy in the United States, 2000–2010. Health & Place, 49, 1-6.
  • Kuznets, S. (1955). Economic Growth and Income Inequality. The American Economic Review, 45(1), 1-28.
  • Lin, C. H. A. (2007). Education Expansion, Educational Inequality, and Income Inequality: Evidence from Taiwan, 1976–2003. Social Indicators Research, 80(3), 601-615.
  • Linden, M. & Ray, D. (2017). Aggregation Bias-correcting Approach to the Health–Income Relationship: Life Expectancy and GDP Per Capita in 148 Countries, 1970–2010. Economic Modelling, 61, 126-136.
  • Macinko, J. A., Shi, L. & Starfield, B. (2004). Wage Inequality, the Health System, and Infant Mortality in Wealthy Industrialized Countries, 1970–1996. Social Science & Medicine, 58(2), 279-292.
  • MacKinnon, J G., Haug, A. A. & Michelis. (1999). Numerical Distribution Functions of Likelihood Ratio Tests for Cointegration. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 14, 563-577.
  • Marques, A. M. (2022). Is Income Inequality Good or Bad for Growth? Further Empirical Evidence Using Data for All Brazilian Cities. Structural Change and Economic Dynamics, 62, 360-376.
  • Mbaku, J. M. (1997). Inequality in Income Distribution and Economic Development: Evidence Using Alternative Measures of Development. Journal of Economic Development, 22(2), 57-67.
  • Mincer, J. (1958). Investment in Human Capital and Personal Income Distribution. Journal of Political Economy, 66(4), 281-302.
  • Moyo, C., Mishi, S. & Ncwadi, R. (2022). Human Capital Development, Poverty and Income Inequality in the Eastern Cape province. Development Studies Research, 9(1), 36-47.
  • Narayan, P. K. (2005). The Saving and Investment Nexus for China: Evidence from Cointegration Tests. Applied Economics, 37(17) 1979-1990.
  • Nettle, D. & Dickins, T. E. (2022). Why is Greater Income Inequality Associated with Lower Life Satisfaction and Poorer Health? Evidence from the European Quality of Life Survey, 2012. The Social Science Journal, 1-12.
  • Ngoc, B. H. & Hai, L. M. (2022). Time-frequency nexus Between Tourism Development, Economic Growth, Human Capital, and Income Inequality in Singapore. Applied Economics Letters, 1-6.
  • Nielsen, F. & Alderson, A. (1997). The Kuznets Curve and the Great U-Turn: Income Inequality in U.S. Counties, 1970 to 1990. American Sociological Review, 62(1), 12-33.
  • Oczki, J., Muszyńska, J. & Wędrowska, E. (2017). Kuznets Hypothesis of Income Inequality: Empirical Evidence from EU. Hradec Economic Days, 7(1), 643-651. http://repozytorium.umk.pl/handle/item/4909
  • Özden, E., Gültekin, Ö. F. & Bayramoğlu, T. (2022). Panel Veri ve Makine Öğrenmesi Yöntemiyle Gelir Dağılımı ve İnsani Gelişmişlik Arasındaki İlişki Üzerine Bir Analiz. Gaziantep University Journal of Social Sciences, 21(2), 564-582.
  • Öztürk, E. & Oktar, S. (2017). Kalkınma Gelir Eşitsizliği İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği. Akademik Hassasiyetler, 4(8), 101-123.
  • Park, K. H. (2017). Education, Globalization, and Income Inequality in Asia, ADBI Working Paper, No. 732, Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI), Tokyo. http://hdl.handle.net/10419/163231
  • Pampel, F. & Pillai, V. (1986). Patterns and Determinants of Infant Mortality in Developed Nations, 1950-1975. Demography, 23(4), 525-542.
  • Paukert, F. (1973). Income Distribution at Different Levels of Development: Survey of Evidence. International Labour Review, 108(3), 97-126.
  • Pesaran, M. H., Shin, Y. & Smith, R. J. (2001). Bounds Testing Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 16(3), 289-326.
  • Phillips, P. C. B. & Perron, P. (1988). Testing for a Unit Root in Time Series Regression, Biometrika, 75(2), 335 346.
  • Rambotti, S. (2015). Recalibrating the Spirit level: An Analysis of the Interaction of Income Inequality and Poverty and Its Effect on Health. Social Science & Medicine, 139, 123-131.
  • Rodgers, G. B. (1979). Income and Inequality as Determinants of Mortality: An International Cross-section Analysis. Population Studies, 33(2), 343-351.
  • Rubin, A. & Segal, D. (2015). The Effects of Economic Growth on Income Inequality in the US. Journal of Macroeconomics, 45, 258-273.
  • Sarkodie, S. A. & Adams, S. (2020). Electricity Access, Human Development Index, Governance and Income Inequality in Sub-Saharan Africa. Energy Reports, 6, 455-466.
  • Sepulveda, E. R. & Brooker, A. S. (2021). Income Inequality and COVID-19 Mortality: Age-stratified Analysis of 22 OECD Countries. SSM-Population Health, 16, 100904.
  • Shah, S. (2016). Determinants of Human Development Index: A Cross-Country Empirical Analysis. SSRG International Journal of Economics and Management Studies, 3(7), 40-43.
  • Shahpari, G. & Davoudi, P. (2014). Studying Effects of Human Capital on Income Inequality in Iran. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 109, 1386-1389.
  • Solt, F. (2020). Measuring Income Inequality Across Countries and Over Time: The Standardized World Income Inequality Database. Social Science Quarterly, 101(3), 1183-1199. SWIID Version 9.0
  • Theyson, K. C. & Heller, L. R. (2015). Development and Income Inequality: A New Specification of the Kuznets Hypothesis. The Journal of Developing Areas, 49(3), 103-118.
  • Thornton, J. (2001). The Kuznets Inverted-U Hypothesis: Panel Data Evidence from 96 Countries. Applied Economics Letters, 8(1), 15–16.
  • Thye, G. L., Law, S. H. & Trinugroho, I. (2022). Human Capital Development and Income Inequality in Indonesia: Evidence from a Nonlinear Autoregressive Distributed Lag (NARDL) Analysis. Cogent Economics & Finance, 10(1), 2129372.
  • Toda, H. Y. & Yamamoto T. (1995). Statistical Inference in Vector Autoregressions with Possibly Integrated Processes. Journal of Econometrics, 66(1-2), 225-250.
  • TÜİK, (2022, Mayıs). Gelir Dağılımı ve Yaşam Koşulları İstatistikleri. https://data.tuik.gov.tr/Bulten/Index?p=Gelir-ve-Yasam-Kosullari-Arastirmasi-2021-45581
  • UNDP, (2018a). Human Development Indices and Indicators 2018: Statistical Update. UN, New York. https://hdr.undp.org/system/files/documents//2018humandevelopmentstatisticalupdatepdf.pdf
  • UNDP, (2018b). Human Development Indices and Indicators: 2018 Statistical Update: Technical Notes. http://hdr.undp.org/sites/default/files/data/2020/hdr2018_technical_notes.pdf
  • UNDP, (2021). Human Development Index (HDI). https://hdr.undp.org/data-center/human-development-index#/indicies/HDI
  • Wang, J. & Xu, Y. (2023). Digitalization, Income Inequality, and Public Health: Evidence from Developing Countries. Technology in Society, 102210.
  • Wang, K. M. & Nguyen Thi, T. B. (2022). Quantile Panel-type Analysis for Income Inequality and Healthcare Expenditure. Economic Research-Ekonomska Istraživanja, 35(1), 873-893.
  • Wilkinson, R. G. (1992). Income Distribution and Life Expectancy. British Medical Journal, 304(6820), 165-168.
  • Wolde, M., Sera, L. & Merra, T. M. (2022). Causal Relationship Between Income Inequality and Economic Growth in Ethiopia. Cogent Economics & Finance, 10(1), 2087299.
  • Yakunina, R. P. & Bychkov, G. A. (2015). Correlation Analysis of the Components of the Human Development Index Across Countries. Procedia Economics and Finance, 24, 766-771.
Toplam 68 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil Türkçe
Bölüm Araştırma Makalesi
Yazarlar

Burhan Durgun 0000-0001-7742-6059

Özlem Durgun 0000-0003-1404-0225

Yayımlanma Tarihi 30 Haziran 2023
Gönderilme Tarihi 18 Kasım 2022
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2023 Cilt: 25 Sayı: 1

Kaynak Göster

APA Durgun, B., & Durgun, Ö. (2023). Gelir Eşitsizliği ve İnsani Gelişme İlişkisi: Türkiye Örneği. Kastamonu Üniversitesi İktisadi Ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 25(1), 45-73. https://doi.org/10.21180/iibfdkastamonu.1206605